㈠ 英语在其发展当中经历了何种演变
英语,作为当今世界历史上的国际社交语言,它取得的成功是史无前例的。从使用它的人口来说,以英语为母语的人数仅次于汉语而居世界第二位,大约有四亿多人。然而以英语作为第二语言、或者在一定程度上使用英语的人数,要远比这多得多,可以说分布在世界的各个角落、各个民族,在这一点上汉语是望尘莫及的。它是怎样发展起来的呢?
英伦三岛的第一批印欧居民是塞尔特人。原先岛上可能还有更早的居民,但是人烟稀少,所以没有留下多少遗迹。塞尔特人是古印欧人的一支,大约在四千五百年前离开他们在东欧的故乡向西迁移,在公元前一千年时(相当于我国商朝末年、西周初年),他们成了德国南部、阿尔卑斯山北麓的一个强大民族。在公元前五百年左右(相当于我国春秋时期),他们开始向西迁移,后来到了英伦诸岛。这就是印欧人的第一次“入侵”。
印欧人的第二次入侵是在公元五世纪中叶,当时生活在现在的德国和丹麦交界处有两个部落,一个是石勒苏益格(Schleswig)的盎格鲁(Angles),另一个是霍尔施坦因(Holstein)的萨克森(Saxon)。石勒苏益格/霍尔施坦因现在是德国最北面的两个州,是第一次世界大战时德国从丹麦那里“取得”的。这两个部落从那里跨过北海,占据了英格兰,原来的塞尔特人很快地后退到威尔士、爱尔兰和苏格兰高地。English一词就出自Angles,原意为“角落”,意即他们来自欧洲大陆的一角。在古英语中Angle写作Engle,他们的语言叫做Englisc(在古英语中“sc”读如“sh”,如“sceap”—— “sheep”)。顺便说一句,“塞尔特”(Celt)中的c可以读如s或k,所以也叫“凯尔特”,美国人中有许多来自苏格兰和爱尔兰,所谓的“美国腔” 可能是凯尔特口音。波士顿不是有个著名的球队叫“凯尔特人队”嘛。
盎格鲁、撒克逊、朱特这三个族群。他们的方言发展成古英语。现今一些常用的字汇是从这些Anglo-Saxon的字汇而来,然而英语也受其他语言的影响。
在日耳曼族尚未入侵不列巅时,岛上住的有凯尔特人。在公元前55年的夏天,古罗马凯撒大帝征服了高卢地区的凯尔特人。为了避免不列巅的凯尔特人报复,凯撒想要一举攻下不列巅,然而并未成功。隔年夏天,又再一次入侵不列巅,在不列巅东南角建立了一个据点。至此大约一百年,罗马人未再侵犯不列巅。
在公元43年,革老丢想要得到整个不列巅群岛的统治权,便派了四万人的军队,费时三年,征服了英格兰。此时大约统治了三百年。
410年,罗马帝国受外族入侵,无力维持其他领地的势力,于是撤退,凯尔特人得不到罗马人的保护,受北方蛮族Picts&Scots骚扰,于是凯尔特领袖便请求朱特族人的保护,并割一块在Kents东北角的isle of Thanet给朱特族。朱特族知道了凯尔特人很好欺负,反而侵略凯尔特人,占领Kents的东南角。其他的日耳曼族群也跟著入侵英格兰,持续一百年。
古英语一直发展到公元1066年法国的诺曼人入侵。在此以前,由于受北欧人和罗马人的影响,许多斯堪地那维亚词汇和拉丁词汇溶了进来。前者如egg,cake,skin,leg,window,husband,sky,fellow,skill,anger,flat,ugly,odd,get,give,take,raise,call,die,they,their,them;后者如street,kitchen,kettle,cup,cheese,wine。塞尔特语的遗迹大多留在地名中,如Thames,Kent,Dover。
基督教将拉丁文与希腊文的字汇带入英语。
古英语又受到了说Old Norse的斯堪地那维亚入侵者影响。古英语内部的发展朝著简化词形变化的方向在走,而Old Norse更加速了这个过程,特别是北方的方言。
在诺曼征服后,可以算是古英语时期的结束。这个影响是前所未有的,开启英语的另一个时代。
诺曼征服对英语有显著的冲击,改变了英语单字的拼法,更引入了许多新的诺曼字汇。若没有诺曼征服,英语将会有更多的词形变化、更多的日耳曼字汇、更多的复合字、较少从其他语言吸收的字汇、不会有法文字汇。
在1066年,诺曼底公爵征服者威廉与Harold抢夺英国国王的王位,征服者威廉在黑斯廷斯战役赢了,成为英国国王。将法国品味带入英国皇室,英国皇室的成员也越来越多的法国人,都不会讲英文,而只会法文。此时,在统治阶级所使用的语言是法文,而一般平民使用的是英文。然而,一般百姓要取得更佳的工作机会的话,就必须会法文。要区别说英文与说法文的人,并不是用族群来区分,而是社会地位。
英语一直是一般大众所使用的语言,但一开始受诺曼统治时,在法庭及皇室中并不使用英语。在《盎格鲁撒克逊编年史》中可见,在公元1154年前,大多数的文学作品是使用法文或拉丁文。
在1204年,英王失去了诺曼底的统治权,英国皇室的成员必须在英国与法国之间选边站,再加上英国讲的法文是Anglo-French以及百年战争的影响,英国人越来越不喜欢讲法文。
在此时,英文的文法与单字都有变化。英文文法从综合语逐渐变为分析语,而单字则增加了许多法文及拉丁文的单字。文法方面,由于发音的改变以及词形变化的类比,导致无法用词形变化来判断字的关系,因而只能用字的顺序来表示文法关系。在文法方面,虽说统治阶级讲的是法文,但法文并未影响到英文的文法。此阶段法文的影响只是因为统治阶级讲的是法文,对英文漠不关心,使英文文法的改变不致有太大的阻力。单字方面,在1250年前,法文带来的是贵族与宗教的单字。1250年后,由于英国皇室对英文的认同提高,带来了日常生活的单字。拉丁文则是随著法文单字,也带到英文中。
诺曼人的入侵为英语带来了大量的法语词汇,这使得现代英语中存现大量的同义/近义词:shut/close,answer/reply,smell/odor,yearly/annual,ask/demand,room/chamber,wish/desire,might/power(英语词/法语词)。有一个有趣的现象是产肉的动物多是英语词,如ox,cow,calf,sheep,swine,deer,而它们的肉则是法语词,如beef,veal,mutton,pork,bacon,venison。大概持法语的多为贵族统治者,只注意他们餐桌上的肉,并不在意牲畜们叫什么。
另外在已有的英语/斯堪地那维亚语同义词基础上,如英语的wrath和斯堪地那维亚语的anger之外,法语又加了个ire。连我们汉语也贡献了几个词:kowtow(叩头),typhoon(台风),sampan(舢板),kaolin(高岭土),tea(闽方言),shanghai(不是地名:-)。
在文艺复兴时期,英语进化成中古英语,中古英语对于近代英语的使用者来说要理解是有点难度。在十五世纪,由于元音大改变,英语更进一步进化成所谓的近代英语。
英语一直在吸收外来字汇,直至现今亦是如此,特别是拉丁语、希腊语。由于如此,现今英语可以说是世界上最多字汇的语言。由于许多单字是来自不同的语言,所以读音错误的情形十分的高。
在1755年山缪尔.约翰逊出版了第一部重要的英语字典。
这些外来语使英语成为一个表达力丰富的语言。尽管溶入了如此众多的“外来语”,古英语仍然构成了它的核心——不到五千的古英语单词一直保持到了今天。在此期间英语逐渐向高层发展,1399年继承王位的亨利四世是第一个以英语为母语的英国国王。在十四世纪快要结束的时候,乔叟(Chaucer)完成了『坎特伯雷的传说』(CanterburyTales),以伦敦方言为代表的英语终于开始出现:一个来自当年“角落”的语言。
㈡ 英语作文—英语的发展历史
跟现代汉语一样,本来是侵略者的语言,如今占了上风了!
㈢ 介绍汉语发展或历史等等的英语作文!急求!!!!
The Charm of Chinese Language
Chinese Language faces some challenges. As compared with English and other Latin based languages, Chinese is less popular and more difficuh for computer word processing. Some college students, wondering whether it is still one of the best languages in the world, neglect Chinese study.
Extensive research has revealed that Chinese possesses many advantages over other languages. Written Chinese is based on a set of ideogram characters. From a simple word one may obtain a wealth of information about its hidden meaning, evolution history and related phrases. Historians can decipher the damaged ancient characters carved on ox hones but no such achievement could be obtained with Latin-based languages. To express a given idea, the Chinese version is always the shortest, most accurate and most effective.
Moreover, Chinese kids learn Chinese by memorizing patterns or funny pictures which stimulate curiosity and imagination. It is well recognized that human brains work well with patterns and pattern recognition in turn promotes brain development. What' more, Chinese is also easy to learn. Many foreigners speak Chinese fluently after a few years of learning. Recently, several word processing programs have been successfully developed for Chinese language and turned out to be better than those designed for English.
Chinese is the crystallization of the splendid culture developed continuously for over 5,000 years. Many treasures remain to be explored. As China grows stronger, more and more foreigners will learn Chinese and share the invaluable treasure.
㈣ 有关中古英语发展历程的英文作文
What is English?
History of the English Language
A short history of the origins and development of English
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain ring the 5th century AD.These tribes,the Angles,the Saxons and the Jutes,crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany.At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language.But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales,Scotland and Ireland.The Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc - from which the words England and English are derived.
Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.
Old English (450-1100 AD)
The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages,which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English.Old English did not sound or look like English today.Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English.Nevertheless,about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots.The words be,strong and water,for example,derive from Old English.Old English was spoken until around 1100.
㈤ 英语的发展历程用英语写一篇作文,不少于200字
2, information on trade-off rules. The report to reflect the "problem", the results
答reflected in the "Proposal" section. Therefore, the information in order to take the issue
of trade-offs at the core, according to reverse order (the order is positive: the basic
situation, the problem,
㈥ 英语作文,自行车的发展历史。
Bike is a popular means of transportation .It is a friendly
environment transport tool.I like riding bikes when go travelling or go
shopping.Nowdays motor cars are increasingly popular but I think it will
cause a lot of damage to us .First it will give out lots of waste
gas,which will contribute to the global warming.It is bad for our
earth.Second.the number of the cars is becoming larger and larger and
the crowded traffic will certainly bring about the risk of safety.So I
think riding a bike is a better choice if we take environment into
consideration.
㈦ 关于英语历史发展的感慨的英语作文
The history of English can be traced back to around 500 BC. On the island of Great Britain (Great Britain) the earliest historical records of the language is around 500 BC, Celtic (Celtic). In 55 BC, the Romans invaded Britain, and has been occupied about 500 years, Latin into the region, and became the official language, the status of the Celtic. About A.D. 449, living in Denmark and northern Germany three Germanic tribes before the invasion of the fall of the Roman empire to the island of Great Britain. They are respectively anglos (Angles, into the central Jutland peninsula), Saxon people (Saxons, into the south Jutland peninsula) and Jutes (Jutes, invasion of northern Jutland peninsula). In language, they replaced the Celtic was use. The three Germanic tribes dialect with the social development, graally merged into a new language, namely a Anglo Saxon (Anglo - Saxon), which is then form the basis for English. To 700 AD, people on the island of Great Britain three tribe called Englisc hybrid form of language. By 1000, the country on the island called Englaland. These two words and then translated into English (English) and England or the UK (England) this is English and England history origin of the two words.
The late 8th century, Denmark's National People's Congress, invaded Britain in the North-East area, Denmark, which lasted nearly 300 years, was brought about by the Scandinavian language has a great influence on the development of English. In 1066 AD, the ke of shooting the Norman French, British, and crowned king of England, and established the Norman dynasty, until 1154. During the Norman's dynastic rule, the British, in fact, there are three kinds of language, French is the official language; Latin is religious language, used to read the bible, church, religious activities; English is the underclass in secular language workers. French special status in Britain until the 14th century, courts, schools, court in 1362, 1385, 1399 to stop the use of French. A bible written in English in 1382, ended the Latin religious language status. At this time English became Britain's national language. So English retains a lot of French words (such as age, air, brush, cry, bourgeoisie) and Latin vocabulary (angel, based, moke, Pope).
In \"the Renaissance\" period (in the 14th century - 16th century), because the people of ancient Greek and Roman culture showed a great interest in study, English and absorbed a large number of ancient society and the European continent culture essence, a huge increase in vocabulary. For example, from the Greek geometry, event, botany; French communists, alloy, surpass; Spanish banana, cocoa, mosquito; Italian violin, piazza.
Rise in the 18th century, Britain's instrial revolution, the colonial scramble to make English along with the development of the empire in the world. Therefore, in and around to absorb a large number of new words. Such as the African zebra, chim - pazee; Cashmere from India, shampoo; From the Chinese tea, litchi; The kangaroo from Australia, boomerang; From the west Indies cannibal, canoe. Due to the development of the British colony and to a large number of overseas immigrants, also from its native English spread to foreign countries (such as BBC English radio station).
Currently outside The UK, speak English as their first language (or mother tongue, Native language) with Ireland (Ireland), The United States (America), Australia (Australia), New Zealand (New Zealand), Guyana (Guyana), Bahamas (The last), Barbados (Barbados), Bermuda (Bermuda), Jamaica (Jamaica), Saint kitts and Nevis (Saint Christopher and Nevis), Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago), (Canada) most people speak English in Canada; Speak English as the official language of countries have Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, South Africa, Singapore, India, the Philippines and other countries; As a second language with Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland and other countries. English graally become a world language, has replaced the French diplomatic status, become today the world's political, economic, science and culture is the most important language. Although english-speaking countries have several listed above, but we still recommend to find a foreign teacher is given priority to with the United States, Canada, UK.
English is also there are regional differences. In Britain, because the original by the Jutland peninsula came to the island of Great Britain anglos Saxon people, jutes settled in different locations, which makes English appears regional differences in the initial period of development. Along with the development of the instry and the city, not only become one of the country's largest city of London, but also absorbed the domestic all area residents, various kinds of tongues mutual confluence, to Oxford and Cambridge as the center of the national culture in the London region becomes the standard variety of British, the language used by radio and television to spread across the country and abroad, the domestic and overseas English language graally unified.
2. The history of English: English spread and development
Outside the UK, through immigration and political role, such as widening the range of English. At the same time, because of the space distance with local and accept to the objective reasons of English foreign dialect, mainly has the American English, Australian English, South African and Indian English, etc. American English is English the most widely used outside the UK, which is the most important English dialect. In general speaking, American English is the most popular in China at present.
In the 17th century, the British immigrants began in North America colonial activities (now the east coast of the United States). Later, with the increased number of immigrants, in coastal has established the 13 colonies. After independence, the 13 colonies established the United States, and become the original 13 states. Them out of the subordinate relations with Britain, so the immigrants of English became the language of the United States.
Due to the United States and Britain have middle Atlantic apart, affected by the exchange of personnel on both sides, language communication, English graally proce differences between the two places. American English dialect main points of New England, the mid-atlantic and the south three. New England dialect area as the center of the northeast in Massachusetts. The residents there are the English immigrants, two-thirds of the puritans from amway east Asia, a few come from the north of England, is the pure English in England. The mid-atlantic dialect area centered on Pennsylvania, early on the migration from the north of England, then mostly immigrants from Ireland, Scotland, in addition to the settled in Pennsylvania, but New Jersey and Delaware. Then enter the immigration and Dutch, German, Swedish.
The south dialect area in Virginia for the earliest core area. Immigration from England, about half of them are from southwest England. Later, as the United States across the Appalachian mountains to the west development, advances three dialects areas vary. New England dialect in addition to the around the great lakes south bank, also appeared to Seattle, San Francisco and Salt Lake City as the center of the island in three languages. The mid-atlantic dialect into Ohio, west to the south, the north border, became the biggest dialect area.
㈧ 英语作文新东方的发展历程
November 16, 1993, the Beijing New Oriental School holds.
In 1996, the first New Oriental bookstore born.
2000, in Shanghai, Guangzhou New Oriental School have set up. In December, New Oriental Ecation Online founded, officially entered the field of distance ecation.
In 2001, New Oriental Ecation & Technology Group was set up.
In 2002, Wuhan, Tianjin, Xi'an, Nanjing New Oriental School have been established, the founder of Elite English Learning Center, to advance the high-end English training market.
June, invest 320 million yuan to build a new East Yangzhou New Oriental Foreign Language School.
In August, the New Oriental invested 200,000 yuan in Heyang County in Shaanxi Province with the construction of the first of the new home Zhuang Zhenxing East Hope Primary School.
In October, the Communist Youth League Central, the National Federation and the new East jointly organized the "light of hope" English instructors west large lecture tour. 30 lecturers toured university Yan'an, Jinggangshan, Lhasa, 15 west of the city, covering more than 100,000 university students.
In 2003, Shenyang, Chongqing, Cheng, Shenzhen have set up the New Oriental School.
In the same year, the Communist Youth League Central, the National Federation and New Oriental jointly organized the "Youth Learning Initiative" National public speaking tour activities started three years a total of 24 provinces and universities nearly 300 000 120 university students, field instructors listened New Oriental speech.
May, New Oriental Dayu Culture Communication Co., Ltd. established the East has entered a new book and periodicals publishing.
In 2004, New Oriental POP Kids English brand was born.
February, Beijing New Oriental future abroad Consulting Ltd. was established carry out a comprehensive study consulting and other related services.
In 2005, Hangzhou, Changsha, Harbin, Jinan, Taiyuan, Zhengzhou, Changchun, Xiangfan New Oriental School holds.
In March, Beijing New Oriental Cheng Xun Network Technology Co., Ltd. was established officially opened www.koolearn.com domain.
Communist Youth League Central, the National Federation and New Oriental jointly organized the "dream trip - Chinese Students inspirational lecture series" national speaking tour activities open. Go to the country each year hundreds of high schools and universities for high school students learning to bring to life the theme of inspirational and exciting lectures.
2006 in Fuzhou, Hefei, Kunming, Shijiazhuang, Suzhou, Zhuzhou, Yichang, Anshan, Foshan and other places have set up the New Oriental School.
September 7, New Oriental was successfully listed on the New York Stock Exchange, becoming the first ecational institution in the United States listed Chinese mainland.
2007 in Nanchang, Wuxi, Jingzhou, Dalian have set up the New Oriental School.
In March, the New Oriental Preschool Development Center (Beijing New Oriental Starry Ecation Advisory Ltd.) was established.
April, "Wuhan New Oriental School Ecation Assistance base" in Hubei Province minors correctional established.
In June, the New Oriental invested 50 million yuan, with the Communist Youth League Central, the National Federation jointly set up a "Chinese Students fifty-four Award Fund - New Oriental self-fund." 10 consecutive years, each year the "Western New Oriental impoverished college students special grants" for the 750 students in western universities, to provide "New Oriental self-Star Scholarship" for the 910 college students nationwide.
In June, the New Oriental invested 10 million yuan, and China Ecation Development Foundation jointly set up a "China Ecation Development Foundation, New Oriental Ecation Fund," designed to help poor children and school areas.
In November, New Oriental International High School Project Department was established.
In November, the US Ecational Testing Service (ETS) and the new East signed a strategic cooperation agreement.
2008 in Lanzhou, Xiamen, Qing, Nanning, Huangshi, Ningbo and other places have set up the New Oriental School.
February, Guangzhou by Guangzhou New Oriental School of Spiritual Civilization Construction Committee Office commissioned to write "welcome the Asian Games in English 100", as the study of Guangzhou City, "welcome the Asian Games, everyone to learn English" activity book.
In May, after the 5 • 12 Wenchuan earthquake, the New Oriental Ecation & Technology Group Chairman and CEO Michael Yu first time rushed to the disaster area, and sent relief supplies. New Oriental has a total donation to nearly 2,000 yuan, and sent three batches of the new East volunteers rushed to the disaster relief and assistance to carry out psychological reopening of schools work.
In August, the New Oriental and NLD Central Joint start "candlelight action - New Oriental teacher social responsibility" activities.
In October, the New Oriental Ecation Research and Family Guidance Center was established at the same time, "New Oriental family ecation in China" National public speaking tour activity to start.
In December, as the 24th World Winter Games in cooperation with students, Harbin New Oriental School, "the 24th World University Winter Games city volunteer service stations," the opening, at the same time, "Harbin New Oriental School Winter phone free translator Line" project started, as the majority of Western tourists provide assistance.
March 2009, the establishment of the New Oriental School in Xuzhou.
In November, the New Oriental Neolink secondary ecation management center set up across the country.
In December, the New Oriental to become "China 2010 Shanghai World Expo urban civilization volunteers language training partner," we have to provide language training for 300,000 city volunteers Expo. It was awarded the "China 2010 Shanghai World Expo volunteer work Outstanding Contribution Award" title Shanghai World Expo Executive Committee.
In 2010 the establishment of the New Oriental School in Xiangtan, Zhenjiang, Luoyang, Nantong, and other places.
In July, Beijing Changping Foreign Language School was founded.
2011 New Oriental New Oriental have opened schools in Jilin, Guiyang, Hohhot, Tangshan, Urumqi and other places.
April, LONDON www.xdf.cn new on-line.
In June, the New Oriental Ecation Group to join US Maige Xi jointly create Maige Sen international ecation.
September, to launch a new Oriental "I believe the future" national public speaking tour, into 32 cities, more than 260 universities from 25 million people to the scene to listen.
2012 facts and rapid response research firm Muddy Waters beat the United States for New Oriental allegations.
In June, Beijing International Travel Co., Ltd. was founded Wokai De.
September 2013, Mr Yu became chairman Geng Dan College, New Oriental indirectly into the academic ecation of private universities.
In September, New Oriental Ecation Research Institute established instry.
㈨ 英语80字左右作文(关于英语发展史)
Historical development of the English language can be divided into three phases, namely: old English ,medieval English and modern English .When English change into modern English stage.Foreign words into English in more than 50 languages, such as French, German, Russian and so on. This means that English is coming modern English
㈩ 英语作文,手机的发展史80词
The Development Of Mobile Phone
Imperceptibly mobile phone into our life has been more than 30 years. As peoples living standards improve mobile phone has graally from the luxury development up to now has become very popular consumer electronic procts. Review of mobile phone development p p p process whether from the appearance or function have turn the world upside down changes. Mobile phone development is also passed through a time change before the formation of the now variety of shapes a variety of functions rather than a single communication tools.The worlds first mobile phone