『壹』 英語詞塊的分類和詞塊與語言輸出的關系(要特別詳細的5000字)
看來我們是同一學校的,詞塊這部分的資料網上不好找,你還是選擇錯題分類吧,比較容易,真的!!我們老師說過的
『貳』 如何將詞塊法應用於高中英語詞彙教學中
1.語音教學和構詞法教學
2.語境教學
余德民(2002)認為,由篇章構成的語境包含的內容把篇章中的詞語聯系起來,使學生更容易從心理詞彙中提取詞彙,有利於詞彙的記憶,因此,脫離語境孤立地學習詞彙僅僅是一種記憶訓練,很難使學生在實踐中靈活使用該詞彙。在實際操作過程中,許多學生為了應付老師檢查聽寫,往往臨時抱佛腳,機械地死記硬背一些單詞,而不是結合課文中具體語境下詞彙的用法幫助記憶,所以出現「今天記住明天忘」,「聽寫過後就不會」的情況。教師要指導學生養成正確的英語學習習慣,比如在布置學生預習詞彙時要有意識地指導他們找出相關詞彙在課文中具體語境下的用法,自然地把詞彙記憶和語境結合起來,這樣既奠定了語言基礎,如對詞彙、短語的掌握,又為閱讀做好了鋪墊,而且學生能感到所記憶的內容是有形有意義的,自然就提高了記憶的積極性,一舉幾得。
3.語塊教學
語塊稱詞塊,是語言體系中一種具體特定語義和結構,以固定或半固定形式存在的詞語組合,如短語、固定搭配、習慣用語和句子框架結構。把詞塊通過一定的規則整合在一起就可以生成有意義的句子。在學習詞彙時如果能以片語或語塊為單位,則不僅會大大增加學生短時記憶的信息量,而且會減少語言輸出過程中的錯誤率。Nattinger和DeCarrico(1992)把語塊分為四類:多詞語塊(polywords),俗語語塊(institutionalized expressions),短語架構語塊(phrasal constrains)和句子構建語塊(sentence builders)。
在詞彙教學中,可以以教材為依託,對能夠讓學生進行語塊學習的詞語就盡可能引導他們進行語塊學習,按照對學生理解和表達有幫助、有指導意義的方式進行語塊教學。以必修3第二單元為例,筆者圍繞Healthy Eating這一話題進行語塊教學,如:
(1)討論好惡某種食物這一話題的語塊
My favorite food/fruit/meat is...
I am fond of...
I don』t often eat...
I really hate...
I can』t stand...
(2)討論食物種類的語塊
fried/smoked chicken;breast of chicken cooked with garlic;barbecued mutton rolls;ice cream;fried eggplant/rice;
(3)相同結構組織的語塊
lose weight/heart/interest/face/confidence
(4)語言功能語塊
What could have happened?
Nothing could be better.
Something terrible must have happened.
通過語塊教學,學生學到的明顯不是一堆孤立的詞彙,而是通過簡單整合或替換就可以准確無誤用來交際的有意義的活的語言材料,所以花同樣的時間記憶語塊的優勢就很明顯了。在日常教學中,還有許多方面可以進行語塊整合,比如同義詞語塊,交際用語中各種話題功能的語塊等。
4.游戲教學
兒童認知規律表明,就英語學習來說,語言學習和語言習得同等重要。語言習得,如幼兒學母語,是在一種全天然的環境中,學習者按照自身的興趣和需求,在真實情景下,通過使用目標語進而掌握該語言,如網上與他人用英語聊天、交流、交友,出國用英語問路、購物等。就目前高中生學習英語而言,完全的英語語境是不太實際的,但可以盡可能多模仿或創造英語習得環境,增加語言輸入及輸出的機會,使詞彙在這樣的習得過程中得到充分運用,作為有生命力的語言組成部分有效地為學生所掌握,游戲教學能獲得這種效果。
(1)限時猜詞游戲
五人一組,由一個同學用英語描述或解釋目標詞彙(限制在所學單元),其餘四個人猜。在有限的時間內(如三分鍾)猜出單詞最多的組獲勝。因時間有限,要求描述者用語准確簡練、表達清晰,猜詞的人要反應敏銳,這樣組員才能配合默契。這個游戲除了對詞彙熟悉並充分調動學生的詞彙庫存之外,對他們的語言表達和聽力也是極好的訓練。
(2)串詞聯句游戲
任意給出所學單元的幾個詞彙(一般是五個詞性不一的單詞或短語),由學生發揮想像力,用這幾個詞說出幾個句子構成一個合理的場景或故事,越合理越精彩者獲勝。
(3)情境創設編故事、對話或短劇游戲
以Healthy Eating為例,可以利用本單元詞彙設置超市購買食材——蔬菜、肉類、調料的對話,可以是朋友間談論美食,可以是醫患之間咨詢健康生活方式及節食,還可以是餐廳就餐時顧客與服務員之間的對話。這些話題都貼近學生的生活,緊跟時代熱點,學生有話可說,既豐富了
『叄』 什麼是詞塊(lexical chunks)詞塊在詞彙教學中有什麼意義
詞塊 (lexical chunks) 即指詞的搭配組合。是真實交際中高頻率出現的大於單一一個詞的語言現象,形式相對穩定。一般來說,詞塊包括習語、詞語搭配、短語等等。語塊不僅指 「in the end」 這樣的連續性短語結構;也包括不連續的句子框架,如「not only...but also 」,還包括一些完整的句子,如「How do you do? 」。Cruse將它定義為「習慣性一起使用的詞系列。」[1]Michael Lewis把它看作「自然文本中詞的共用達到統計學意義數量的方式」[2]。國內學者衛乃興在總結各學派的觀點後把它定義為:在文本中實現一定的非成語意義並以一定的語法形式因循組合使用的一個詞語系列,構成該序列的詞語相互預期,以大於偶然的幾率共現。[3]從以上定義可以看出搭配具有共現性、重復性、習慣性和自然性。詞塊可以是兩個或兩個以上的片語合在一起,它的組成成分可以是:形容詞 名詞:a large number,名詞 名詞:pocket money,動詞 名詞:pay the bill,副詞 形容詞:seriously injured,動詞 形容詞 名詞:learn a foreign language,動詞 副詞:live together, 副詞 動詞:half understand,動詞 介詞 名詞:speak into the telephone等。有的還可以更長,有的甚至是句子,如:How do you do? 在Lewis看來,詞塊按照其組成成分之間關系密切的程度可分為固定搭配, 如rancid butter, curry favor,半固定搭配,如hold a meeting, ride a horse和鬆散搭配,如white,wine, red wine。這些詞塊有完整的意義,可以直接運用於口筆頭交際。
詞塊在詞彙教學中的意義有:
Michael Lewis指出語言包含詞塊, 當詞塊組合在一起時就產生了連貫的語篇。語言交際主要靠典型的詞語搭配來表達意義,運用搭配可以使人思維更快,使交際效率更高。因此搭配對於學習者來說非常重要,尤其是那些固定搭配和半固定搭配。當學習者使用搭配進行交際的時候,他們從心理詞典中迅速提取大量的語言成品,減少了大腦語言加工的時間,加快了語言產出的速度,而且提高了語言使用的准確性和流利性。[4] 因為母語使用者在聽話時都會下意識地根據對方使用的片語搭配去預測對方將要說出的話,口語交際中多使用固定搭配還可以彌補發音不準帶來的不足,增強語言的可理解性。因此掌握詞塊是實現順利交際的重要途徑, 是外語學習者的主要任務之一。
在多年的大學英語教學中嘗試過許多幫助學生增強詞塊意識, 掌握詞塊的方法,發現下列詞塊訓練方法易於操作,學生反饋的效果較好。(1)讓學生劃出閱讀文中的詞塊,對於水平較低的學生可以要求他們只劃出名詞 名詞,動詞 名詞, 形容詞 名詞等由基本詞構成的常用詞塊。這樣既可增強詞塊意識又可熟悉常用詞塊。(2)教師可以從語料庫中提取數行某詞構成詞塊的索引行,展示詞塊出現的語境讓學生去發現它組合的規律,可以更准確地掌握詞的意義和用法。(3)教師給出一段文章,讓學生快速瀏覽後進行詞塊完形練習,或將某些關鍵詞塊隱去,讓學生根據上下文將其補全,既鞏固了語言知識,又提高了語言應用能力。 (4)給出一組詞或片語,讓學生挑出其中不能與某個常用詞構成地道搭配的詞,能夠較好地排除母語負遷移的影響。[6]其它形式的詞塊訓練還包括:漢英詞塊配對練習,改正錯誤搭配練習,這樣的練習可以讓學生更好地了解英、漢語不同的搭配觀念,消除錯誤印象,強化正確搭配。對於高水平的學生可以多做習語搭配的練習;另外在讀文章或聽文章、對話後多做概括大意訓練,可以使短時記憶中的詞塊在語言輸出中得到強化。
(人教版)必修2 Unit 4 Wildlife Protection 一課中出現的詞塊有:
1 decrease to 減少到 2. decrease by減少了
3. die out 滅亡 4. loss of缺少
5. in peace 和平地 6. in danger of 處於危險中
7. burst into laughter 突然大笑 8. protect…from…保護…不受(傷害)
9.appreciate doing sth 感激做某事 10. long before 很久以前
11.before long 很快,不久 12. come into being 形成
13.for sure 一定要,必須 14.so that 以致於,為了
15.in relief 如釋重負,鬆了口氣 16.pat attention to 注意
17.according to 按照,根據 18.in such a short time 在如此短的時間內
19. have an effect on 對…產生影響 20. succeed in doing sth 成功地做某事
『肆』 如何將詞塊法應用於高中英語寫作教學中
1.語音教學和構詞法教學 2.語境教學 余德民(2002)認為,由篇章構成的語境包含的專內容把篇章中的詞語聯系起屬來,使學生更容易從心理詞彙中提取詞彙,有利於詞彙的記憶,因此,脫離語境孤立地學習詞彙僅僅是一種記憶訓練,很難使學生在實踐中靈活。
『伍』 詞塊教學法有什麼局限性,弊端,在寫作中
課堂上,大多數老師往往操作過於簡單:以課後詞彙表為本,以一本詞典為據,逐一回將每個單詞答的義項羅列下來教給學生,沒有參考「課程標准」進行篩選,更沒有語境的創設。這就是目前部分中學英語詞彙教學的現狀,該種教學模式存在以下不足之處:
1.不分主次,加大學生的識記量
2.忽略詞彙呈現的邏輯順序
3.造成英漢詞彙是一一對應的錯覺
4.忽視詞彙的語用功能
5.忽略詞彙的文化性
『陸』 英語寫作在英語學習中的重要性
別急 會把英語寫作能力提高的
談談如何提高英語寫作能力
關鍵詞:英語寫作能力 原則 方法
引言:英語寫作能力是英語聽、說、讀、寫四種基本能力之一,英語寫作能有效地促進語言知識的內化。Swain(1985)提出「可理解輸出」假設,認為包括寫在內的語言產生性運用有助於學習者檢驗目的語句法結構和詞語的使用,促進語言運用的自動化,有效地達到了語言習得的目的。通過寫作,英語知識不斷得到鞏固並內在化,有利於英語技能的全面發展。但是,英語寫作又是廣大英語學習者最感頭痛的問題之一,且容易被教師忽視,筆者以為如何提高英語寫作能力值得我們認真研究。本文就此談談初淺的看法。
一、提高英語寫作能力的原則
(一)漸進性原則。要堅持「句—段—篇」的訓練程序,由易到難,循序漸進。在英語寫作的初始階段,要始終注意培養學生良好的寫作習慣,狠抓基本功訓練。在學生掌握了基本句型並能寫出簡單句子後,再要求學生根據一些體例寫出小段的文章。在段落寫作中要引導學生分析段落的結構、段落的中心句、句與句之間的邏輯關系、寫作手法等,這樣有利於下一步一篇文章的寫作。在文章寫作中要教會學生如何構思文章、如何運用正確的寫作技巧等。
(二)多樣性原則。要堅持訓練形式的多樣化及寫作文體的多樣性。從形式上而言,可以用回答提問的口頭作文,也可以用續寫故事;可以改寫課文,也可以仿寫課文;可以寫提綱訓練謀篇布局,也可以寫拓展段訓練發散思維……。從文體上而言,可以寫說明文、議論文、記敘文,也可以寫書信、便條、通知等實用文體。
(三)結合性原則。要堅持聽說讀訓練和寫訓練相結合。根據語言習得理論,學習者在學習時常先通過聽和讀吸取語言知識,從而了解別人的思想,再通過說和寫來表達自己的思想,讓別人了解自己。大量的聽說訓練能促進讀寫能力的提高。因此,寫與聽說讀緊密結合,進行多元化的能力訓練,可使學生的各項能力互相影響、互相滲透、互相促進。
(四)控制性原則。要堅持寫作前的指導,控制學生的漢語語言思維,發展英語語言思維。語言學習在很大程度上主要是模仿,而非隨心所欲地自由表達。教師要加強寫作前的指導,可給出範文讓學生模仿,以熟悉其語篇結構。同時要控制其漢語語言思維,盡可能讓學生習慣英語語言思維,以便於學生學習和掌握地道、正確的英語。
(五)持久性原則。要堅持長期、正確的寫作訓練。英語寫作能力的提高並非一朝一夕之事,而是一個長期的、艱巨的、漸進的過程。這就要求教師、學生都要有充分的思想准備,要有堅韌不拔的意志和必勝的信心。
二、提高英語寫作能力的方法。
(一)通過積累詞彙量,提高英語寫作能力。猶如土木磚石是建築的材料一樣,詞彙是說話寫作的必需材料,也是制約寫作能力提高的瓶頸。可以想像,如果要寫一個句子,10個單詞有8個單詞拼寫錯誤或拼寫不出,有2
個單詞用法不當,又怎麼能清楚地表達自己的思想呢?因此,在平時的教學中要強調學生記憶單詞,記住單詞的拼讀、用法、意思等。記憶單詞的方法有很多,各人有各人的記憶方法和習慣,可因人而異。教師可通過要求學生朗讀單詞、聽寫單詞、默寫單詞、遣詞造句、詞彙競賽等多種方法促進學生記單詞。記憶單詞是一個長期的反復的過程,要長期地堅持下去,才能不斷積累大量的詞彙,為英語寫作打下堅實的基礎。
(二)通過擴大閱讀量,提高英語寫作能力。古人雲「熟讀唐詩三百首,不會作詩也會吟」,這是漢語的一種學習方法,同樣可借鑒於英語寫作。多閱讀是學生增加接觸英語語言材料、接受信息、活躍思維、增長智力的一種途徑,同時也是培養學生英語思維能力、提高理解力、增強語感、鞏固和擴大詞彙量的一種好方法,有利於促進英語寫作能力的提高。在閱讀訓練中,教師要注意以下問題:一是指導閱讀方法,分析文章結構、中心思想、段落中心句、寫作方法等,幫助學生掌握各類文章的結構及寫作方法。二要精讀與泛讀相結合,通過推敲優秀的文章來學會寫作方法和選詞用詞;通過大量的泛讀來吸取信息量,擴大詞彙量。三要擴大閱讀量。提供閱讀的材料涉及面要廣,才能不斷擴大學生的知識面,使學生適應各種題材的寫作。
(三)通過提高聽說能力,提高英語寫作能力。英語聽說讀寫四種能力是相互影響、相互促進的,提高聽說能力必定會促進寫作能力的提高。要提高聽說能力關鍵在於創設一個良好的英語環境。教師要盡可能地用英語授課,多開展專門的聽說訓練,同時開展豐富多彩的課外英語活動,讓學生沉浸在英語海洋中去領略、去體會、去使用英語,久而久之,學生自然能使用正確的、地道的英語進行交談與寫作。
(四)通過重視寫作過程,提高英語寫作能力。長期以來,英語寫作成果教學法(THE PRODUCT
APPROACH)在我國居於主導地位,教師根據寫作的終成品來判斷寫作的成敗,重視寫作的技術性細節(如格式、拼寫、語法等),忽視寫作過程的指導。根據D.Rumechart和J.McClelland提出的連通論(Connectionism)理論,寫作包括寫前階段、具體寫作、文章修改三個基本過程,這三個過程並非是線性排列,而是循環往復,穿插進行的。教師只有重視加強對寫作三個過程的指導,才能更好地提高英語寫作能力。在寫作前階段,教師重在指導學生如何挖掘題材,訓練發散性思維,以及如何選擇材料、謀篇布局等。在具體寫作中,教師重在指導學生如何緊扣主題、運用正確的寫作方法等。在文章修改中,教師重在指導學生如何修改語法及用詞的錯誤。
(五)通過多寫英語摘要,提高英語寫作能力。英語摘要是把一篇文章的要點摘錄出來,用自己的語言使之獨立成一篇短文,這不是簡單的摘錄,而是忠於原文意思的再創作。寫英語摘要有利於學生了解原文的文化背景、理解原文的中心意思、弄清原文的篇章結構,從而提高學生的邏輯思維能力和謀篇布局能力。
(六)通過發展英語語言思維能力,提高英語寫作能力。英語寫作是運用已掌握的內在化語言知識和表達方法,通過思維進行外在化輸出的創作,因此英語語言思維能力在英語寫作中作用非凡。對於我國學生而言,在英語寫作中易受漢語語言思維的影響,難以直接用英語語言進行思維,不利於英語寫作能力的提高,因此發展其英語語言思維能力尤為重要。教師要注意對學生的英語語言思維進行多方位、多角度的訓練:要採取各種方法訓練學生英語語言思維的廣闊性、深刻性、發散性和創造性;要教會學生用英語思考問題、回答問題;要從訓練形象思維開始,逐步過渡到抽象思維訓練;在課文講解中要盡可能不用漢語翻譯而用英語解釋,消除漢語思維的影響;要努力創設良好的英語環境,在英語交際中發展英語思維能力。
寫好英語段落的三個標准
首先,一個段落必須有一個中心即主題思想,該中心由主題句特別是其中的題旨來表達。整個段落必須緊扣這個主題(stick or hold to the topic),這就是段落的統一性(unity)。其次,一個段落必須有若干推展句,使主題思想得到充分展開,從而給讀者一個完整的感覺,這就是完整性(completeness or adequateness)。再者,一個段落不是雜亂無章的,而是有機的組合,句子的排列順序必須合乎邏輯,從一個句子到另一個句子的過渡必須流暢(smooth),這就是連貫性(coherence)。下面我們就對這三個標准分別加以說明。
1、統一性
一個段落內的各個句子必須從屬於一個中心,任何游離於中心思想之外的句子都是不可取的。請看下例:
Joe and I decided to take the long trip we'd always wanted across the country. We were like young kids buying our camper and stocking it with all the necessities of life. Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie. We started out in early spring from Minneapolis and headed west across the northern part of the country. We both enjoyed those people we met at the trailer park. Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner. To our surprise, we found that we liked the warm southern regions very much, and so we decided to stay here in New Mexico.
本段的主題句是段首句,controlling idea(中心思想)是take the long trip across the country.文中出現兩個irrelevant sentences,一個是Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie,這一段是講的是Joe and I ,中間出現一個Bella是不合適的。還有,Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner這一句更是與主題句不相關。考生在四級統考的作文卷上常常因為造出irrelevant sentences(不相關語句)而丟分,值得引起注意。再看一個例子:
My name is Roseanna, and I like to keep physically fit. I used to weigh two hundred pounds, but I joined the YMCA for an exercise class and diet program. In one year I lost eighty pounds. I feel much better and never want to have that much weight on my five-feet frame again. I bought two new suitcases last week. Everyday I practice jogging three miles, swimming fifteen laps, lifting twenty-pound weights and playing tennis for one hour. My mother was a premature baby.
本段的controlling idea 是like to deep physically fit,但段中有兩個irrelevant sentences,一個是I bought two new suitcases last week,另一個是My mother was a premature baby.
從上面兩個例子可以看出,native speakers同樣會造出來irrelevant sentences.卷面上如果這種句子多了,造成偏題或離題,那問題就更嚴重了。
2、完整性
正象我們前面說得那樣,一個段落的主題思想靠推展句來實現,如果只有主題句而沒有推展句來進一步交待和充實,就不能構成一個完整的段落。同樣,雖然有推展句,但主題思想沒有得到相對圓滿的交待,給讀者一種意猶未盡的感覺。這樣的段落也不能完成其交際功能。例如:
Physical work can be a useful form of therapy for a mind in turmoil. Work concentrates your thoughts on a concrete task. Besides, it is more useful to work —— you proce something rather than more anxiety or depression.
本段的主題句是段首句。本段的兩個推展句均不能回答主題句中提出的問題。什麼是「a mind in turmoil」(心境不平靜)Physical work又如何能改變這種情況?為什麼它能起therapy的作用?讀者得不到明確的答案。由於四級統考的作文部分只要求寫一篇100~120個詞的三段式短文,每一段只有大約40個詞左右,因此,要達到完整就必須盡可能地簡明。例如:
It is not always true that a good picture is worth a thousand words. Often writing is much clearer than a picture. It is sometimes difficult to figure out what a picture means, but a careful writer can almost always explain it.
段首句所表達的主題思想是一種看法,必須有具體事例加以驗證。上述兩個推展句只是在文字上對主題作些解釋,整個段落內容空洞,簡而不明。如果用一兩個具體的例子的話,就可以把主題解釋清楚了。比如下段:
It is not always true that a picture is worth a thousand words. Sometimes, pictures are pretty useless things. If you can't swim and fall in the river and start gulping water, will you be better off to hold up a picture of yourself drowning, or start screaming 「Help」?
3、連貫性(coherence)
連貫性包括意連和形連兩個方面,前者指的是內在的邏輯性,後者指的是使用轉換詞語。當然這兩者常常是不可分割的。只有形連而沒有意連,句子之間就沒有內在的有機的聯系;反之,只有意連而沒有形連,有時行文就不夠流暢。
1)、意連
段落中句子的排列應遵循一定的次序,不能想到什麼就寫什麼。如果在下筆之前沒有構思,邊寫邊想,寫寫停停,那就寫不出一氣呵成的好文章來。下面介紹幾種常見的排列方式。
A.按時間先後排列(chronological arrangement)
We had a number of close calls that day. When we rose, it was obviously late and we had to hurry so as not to miss breakfast; we knew the dining room staff was strict about closing at nine o'clock. Then, when we had been driving in the desert for nearly two hours —— it must have been close to noon —— the heat nearly hid us in; the radiator boiled over and we had to use most of our drinking water to cool it down. By the time we reached the mountain, it was our o'clock and we were exhausted. Here, judgement ran out of us and we started the tough climb to the summit, not realizing that darkness came suddenly in the desert. Sure enough, by six we were struggling and Andrew very nearly went down a steep cliff, dragging Mohammed and me along with him. By nine, when the wind howled across the flat ledge of the summit, we knew as we shivered together for warmth that it had not been our lucky day.
本段從「rose」(起床)寫起,然後是吃早餐(「not to miss breakfast」, 「closing at nine o'clock」),然後是「close to noon」,一直寫到這一天結束(「By nine——」)。
B. 按位置遠近排列(spatial arrangement)。例如:
From a distance, it looked like a skinny tube, but as we got closer, we could see it flesh out before our eyes. It was tubular, all right, but fatter than we could see from far away. Furthermore, we were also astonished to notice that the building was really in two parts: a pagoda sitting on top of a tubular one-story structure. Standing ten feet away, we could marvel at how much of the pagoda was made up of glass windows. Almost everything under the wonderful Chinese roof was made of glass, unlike the tube that it was sitting on, which only had four. Inside, the tube was gloomy, because of the lack of light. Then a steep, narrow staircase took us up inside the pagoda and the light changed dramatically. All those windows let in a flood of sunshine and we could see out for miles across the flat land.
本段的寫法是由遠及近,從遠處(「from a distance」)寫起,然後「get closer」,再到(「ten feet away」),最後是「inside the pagoda」……當然,按位置遠近來寫不等於都是由遠及近。根據需要,也可以由近及遠,由表及裡等等。
C. 按邏輯關系排列(logical arrangement)
a. 按重要性順序排列(arrangement in order of importance)
If you work as a soda jerker, you will, of course, not need much skill in expressing yourself to be effective. If you work on a machine, your ability to express yourself will be of little importance. But as soon as you move one step up from the bottom, your effectiveness depends on your ability to reach others through the spoken or the written word. And the further away your job is from manual work, the larger the organization of which you are an employee, the more important it will be that you know how to convey your thoughts in writing or speaking. In the very large business organization, whether it is the government, the large corporation, or the Army, this ability to express oneself is perhaps the most important of all the skills a man can possess.
這一段談的是表達能力,它的重要性與職業,身份有關,從「not need much skill」或「of little importance」到「more important」,最後是「most important」。
b.由一般到特殊排列(general-to-specific arrangement)
If a reader is lost, it is generally because the writer has not been careful enough to keep him on the path. This carelessness can take any number of forms. Perhaps a sentence is so excessively cluttered that the reader, hacking his way through the verbiage, simply doesn't know what it means. Perhaps a sentence has been so shoddily constructed that the reader could read it in any of several ways. Perhaps the writer has switched tenses, or has switched pronouns in mid-sentence, so the reader loses track of when the action took place or who is talking. Perhaps sentence B is not logical sequel to sentence A —— the writer, in whose head the connection is clear, has not bothered to provide the missing link. Perhaps the writer has used an important word incorrectly by not taking the trouble to look it up. He may think that 「sanguine」 and 「sanguinary」 mean the same thing, but the difference is a bloody big one. The reader can only infer what the writer is trying to imply.
這一段談的是a writer's carelessness,先給出一個general statement作為主題句,然後通過5個 」perhaps」加以例證。
c. 由特殊到一般排列(specific-to-general arrangement)
I do not understand why people confuse my Siamese cat, Prissy, with the one I had several years ago, Henry. The two cats are only alike in breed. Prissy, a quiet, feminine feline, loves me dearly but not possessively. She likes to keep her distance from people, exert her independence and is never so rude as to beg, lick, or sniff unceremoniously. Her usual posture is sitting upright, eyes closed, perfectly still. Prissy is a very proper cat. Henry, on the other hand, loved me dearly but possessively. He was my shadow from morning till night. He expected me to constantly entertain him. Henry never cared who saw him do anything, whether it was decorous or not, and he usually offended my friends in some way. The cat made himself quite comfortable, on the top of the television, across stranger's feet or laps, in beds, drawers, sacks, closets, or nooks. The difference between them is imperceptible to strangers.
本段的主題句是段首句,它僅提出一個問題:為什麼兩只貓會被搞混。然後對兩者進行比較,末句才下結論。
2)、形連
行文的邏輯性常常要靠適當的轉換詞語及其他手段來實現。請讀下面這一段文字並找出文中用以承上啟下的詞語:
Walter's goal in life was to become a successful surgeon. First, though, he had to get through high school, so he concentrated all his efforts on his studies —— in particular, biology, chemistry, and math. Because he worked constantly on these subjects, Walter became proficient in them; however, Walter forgot that he needed to master other subjects besides those he had chosen. As a result, ring his junior year of high school, Walter failed both English and Latin. Consequently, he had to repeat these subjects and he was almost unable to graate on schele. Finally, on June 6, Walter achieved the first step toward realizing his goal.
本文中起承上啟下的詞語有兩種,一種是轉換詞語(transitional words or phrases),另一種是起轉換作用的其他連接手段(linking devices)。前者依次有:first, though, so, in particular, and, because, however, besides, as a result, both…and, consequently, and, finally.後者依次是:he, he, his, his, he, these, them, he, those, his, he, these, his. 本段中共有詞彙105個,所使用的轉換詞語及其他連接用語共26個詞,約占該段總詞彙量的四分之一。由此可見,掌握好transitions不僅對行文的流(smoothness)有益,而且對於學生在半個小時內寫足四級短文所要求的120個詞也是不無好處的。
一個段落里如果沒有transitions也就很難有coherence了。我們看下面一個例子:Speaking and writing are different in many ways. Speech depends on sounds. Writing uses written symbols. Speech developed about 500 000 years ago. Written language is a recent development. It was invented only about six thousand years ago. Speech is usually informal. The word choice of writing is often relatively formal. Pronunciation and accent often tell where the speaker is from. Pronunciation and accent are ignored in writing. A standard diction and spelling system prevails in the written language of most countries. Speech relies on gesture, loudness, and rise and fall of the voice. Writing lacks gesture, loudness and the rise and fall of the voice. Careful speakers and writers are aware of the differences.
本段中除了第6句開頭出現一個起過渡作用的」it」之外,沒有使用其他的過渡詞語。這樣,文中出現許多重復的詞語,全段讀起來也顯得生硬而不自然。如果加上必要的過渡詞語來修飾的話,這一段就成了下面一個流暢連貫的段落:
Speaking and writing are different in many ways. Speech depends on sounds; writing, on the other hand, uses written symbols. Speech was developed about 500 000 years ago, but written language is a recent development, invented only about six thousand years ago. Speech is usually informal, while the word choice of writing, by contrast, is often relatively formal. Although pronunciation and accent often tell where the speaker is from, they are ignored in wiring because a standard diction and spelling system prevails in most countries. Speech relies on gesture, loudness, and the rise and fall of the voice, but writing lacks these features. Careful speakers and writers are aware of the differences.
4、有損連貫性的幾種情況:
考生在寫作中經常出現下面幾種錯誤:
1、不必要的改變時態,比如:
In the movie, Robert Redford was a spy. He goes to his office where he found everybody dead. Other spies wanted to kill him, so he takes refuge with Julie Christie. At her house, he had waited for the heat to die down, but they come after him anyway.
2、不必要的改變單復數,比如:
Everybody looks for satisfaction in his life. They want to be happy. But if he seeks only pleasure in the short run, the person will soon run out of pleasure and life will catch up to him. They need to pursue the deeper pleasure of satisfaction in work and in relationships.
3、不必要的改變人稱,比如:
Now more than ever, parents need to be in touch with their children's activities because modern life has the tendency to cause cleavages in the family. You need to arrange family like it so that family members will do things together and know one another. You need to give up isolated pleasures of your own and realize that parents have a set of obligations to sponsor togetherness and therefore sponsor knowledge.
因此寫作中,一定要注意時態,人稱以及數的變化是否正確,要注意保持一致。